Low intake of fruits and vegetables
Smoking and regular alcohol consumption
Unlike supplements, foods rich in beta-carotene pose no lung cancer risk. Synthetic beta-carotene supplements have been found to increase the risk of both colorectal and lung cancer in smokers, especially those who also drink alcohol. A study published by an international team in the January 2004 issue of Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention indicates that beta-carotene consumed as part of whole foods has no such negative effects. This study, which pooled data from seven large cohort studies running between 7 and 16 years and involving a subject population of 399,765 participants in North America and Europe, found that beta-carotene from foods was not associated with any increased risk of lung cancer among current smokers or non-smokers. Other carotenoids in foods (lutein, zeaxanthin and lycopene) were also found to have no association with lung cancer risk.
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